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Imperial Russian Army
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Imperial Russian Army
Русская императорская армия
Cockade of the Imperial Russian Army
Active
1721–1917
Country
Russian Empire
Type
Army
Size
12 – 15,000,000 during World War I
4,200,000 during the
Russian Civil War
Mascot(s)
Engagements
Great Northern War
Russo-Turkish Wars
Russo-Swedish Wars
Russo-Persian Wars
Russo-Polish Wars
Seven Years' War
Napoleonic Wars
Caucasian War
Crimean War
Russo-Japanese War
World War I
Russian Revolution
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Peter the Great
Boris Sheremetev
Alexander Menshikov
Pyotr Rumyantsev
Alexander Suvorov
Grigory Potemkin
Mikhail Kutuzov
Pyotr Bagration
Aleksey Yermolov
Mikhail Skobelev
Aleksei Brusilov
Armies of Russia
Kievan Rus'
Druzhina
862–1283
Voyi
Grand Duchy of Moscow
Landed Army
1482–
c.
1700
Tsardom of Russia
Streltsy
c.
1550–1721
New Order Regiments
1648–98
Russian Empire
Imperial Army
1721–1917
Russian Republic
Russian Army
1917
Russian Civil War
White Army
1918–23
Red Army
1918–22
Soviet Union
Red Army
1922–46
Soviet Army
1946–92
Russian Federation
CIS Armed Forces
1991–92
Ground Forces
1992–
present
v
t
e
The
Imperial Russian Army
(
Russian
:
Ру́сская импера́торская а́рмия
,
tr.
Rússkaya imperátorskaya ármiya
) was the land
armed force
of the
Russian Empire
, active from around 1721 to the
Russian Revolution
of 1917. In the early 1850s, the Russian Army consisted of more than 900,000 regular soldiers and nearly 250,000
irregulars
(mostly
Cossacks
).
The last living veteran of the Russian Imperial Army was the
Ukrainian
supercentenarian
Mikhail Krichevsky
, who died in 2008.
Contents
1
Precursors: Regiments of the New Order
2
Introduction of conscription
3
1760s
4
Imperial Russian Army in 1805
5
Napoleonic Wars
5.1
Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)
5.2
French invasion of Russia
5.3
1813 Campaign in Germany
5.4
1814 Campaign in France
6
Organization
6.1
Imperial Guard
6.1.1
Infantry of the Guard
6.1.2
Cavalry of the Guard
6.1.3
Artillery of the Guard
7
Jews in the Russian Army
8
Cossacks
9
Ethnic and religious minorities
10
Title, ranks, and insignia, 1917
10.1
Other regiments
11
Reforms
12
World War I and revolution
13
Notes
14
See also
15
References
16
External links
Precursors: Regiments of the New Order
[
edit
]
Russian tsars
before
Peter the Great
maintained professional hereditary musketeer corps known as
streltsy
. These were originally raised by
Ivan the Terrible
; originally an effective force, they had become highly unreliable and undisciplined. In times of war the armed forces were augmented by peasants.
The regiments of the new order, or regiments of the foreign order (
Полки нового строя
or
Полки иноземного строя
,
Polki novovo (inozemnovo) stroya
), was the Russian term that was used to describe
military units
that were formed in the
Tsardom of Russia
in the 17th century according to the
Western European
military standards.
[1]
There were different kinds of regiments, such as the
regulars
,
dragoons
, and
reiters
. In 1631, the Russians created two regular regiments in Moscow. During the
Smolensk War
of 1632–1634, six more regular regiments, one reiter regiment, and a dragoon regiment were formed. Initially, they recruited children of the landless
boyars
and
streltsy
, volunteers, Cossacks and others.
Commanding officers
comprised mostly foreigners. After the war with Poland, all of the regiments were disbanded. During another
Russo-Polish War
, they were created again and became a principal force of the Russian Army. Often, regular and dragoon regiments were manned with
datochniye lyudi
for lifelong
military service
. Reiters were manned with small or landless
gentry
and boyars' children and were paid with money (or lands) for their service. More than a half of the commanding officers were representatives from the gentry. In times of peace, some of the regiments were usually disbanded.
In 1681, there were 33 regular regiments (61,000 men) and 25 dragoon and reiter regiments (29,000 men). In the late 17th century, regiments of the new type represented more than a half of the Russian Army and at the beginning of the 18th century were used for creating a regular army.
Introduction of conscription
[
edit
]
Gear of the
polki novogo stroya
, 1647
Russian infantry in 1742–1763
Conscription in Russia
was introduced by Peter the Great in December 1699,
[2]
though reports say Peter's father also used it. The conscripts were called "recruits" (not to be confused with voluntary army recruitment,
[3]
which did not appear until the early 20th century).
Peter formed a modern regular army built on the German model, but with a new aspect: officers not necessarily from
nobility
, as talented commoners were given promotions that eventually included a noble title at the attainment of an officer's rank (such promotions were later abolished during the reign of
Catherine the Great
). Conscription of peasants and townspeople was based on quota system, per settlement. Initially it was based on the number of households, later it was based on the population numbers.
[3]
The term of service in the 18th century was for life. In 1793 it was reduced to 25 years. In 1834, it was reduced to 20 years plus five years in the reserve, and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years in the reserve.
[3]
1760s
[
edit
]
General
Suvorov
crossing the
St. Gotthard Pass
during the
Italian and Swiss expedition
in 1799
The history of the Russian Army in this era was linked to the name of Russian General
Alexander Suvorov
, considered to one of the few great generals in history who never lost a battle.
From 1777 to 1783 Suvorov served in the
Crimea
and in the
Caucasus
, becoming a lieutenant-general in 1780, and general of infantry in 1783, on the conclusion of his work there. From 1787 to 1791 he again fought the Turks during the
Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792
and won many victories. Suvorov's leadership also played a key role in a Russian victory over the Poles during the
Kościuszko Uprising
.
[
citation needed
]
Imperial Russian Army in 1805
[
edit
]
As a major European power, Russia could not escape the wars involving
Revolutionary France
and the
First French Empire
, but as an adversary to
Napoleon
, the leadership of the new emperor,
Alexander I of Russia
(r. 1801–1825), who came to the throne as the result of his
father's
murder (in which he was rumoured to be implicated) became crucial.
The Russian Army in 1805 had many characteristics of
Ancien Régime
organization: there was no permanent formation above the regimental level, senior officers were largely recruited from aristocratic circles, and the Russian soldier, in line with 18th-century practice, was regularly beaten and punished to instill discipline. Furthermore, many lower-level officers were poorly trained and had difficulty getting their men to perform the sometimes complex manoeuvres required in a battle. Nevertheless, the Russians did have a fine artillery arm manned by soldiers trained in academies and who would regularly fight hard to prevent their pieces from falling into enemy hands.
[4]
Both the Russians and Austrians met a decisive military defeat at the hands of Napoleon during the
Battle of Austerlitz
in 1805.
Napoleonic Wars
[
edit
]
Capture of a French regiment's eagle by the cavalry of the Russian
Imperial Guard
at the
Battle of Austerlitz
The
War of the Fourth Coalition
(1806–07) involving Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden and the United Kingdom against France formed within months of the collapse of the previous coalition. In August 1806, King
Frederick William III of Prussia
made the decision to go to war independently of any other great power except neighbouring Russia. Another course of action might have involved declaring war the previous year and joining Austria and Russia. This might have contained Napoleon and prevented the Allied disaster in the
Battle of Austerlitz
. In any event, the Russian Army, an ally of Prussia, still remained far away when Prussia declared war.
Napoleon smashed the main Prussian armies at the
Battle of Jena–Auerstedt
on 14 October 1806 and hunted down the survivors during the remainder of October and November. Having destroyed all Prussian forces west of the
Oder
, Napoleon pushed east to seize
Warsaw
. In late December, the initial clashes between the French and Russians at
Czarnowo
,
Golymin
, and
Pułtusk
were without result. The French emperor put his troops into winter quarters east of the
Vistula
River, but the new Russian commander
Levin August von Bennigsen
refused to remain passive.
Bennigsen shifted his army north into
East Prussia
and launched a stroke at the French strategic left wing. The main force of the blow was evaded by the French at the
Battle of Mohrungen
in late January 1807. In response, Napoleon mounted a counterattack designed to cut off the Russians. Bennigsen managed to avoid entrapment and the two sides fought the
Battle of Eylau
on 7 and 8 February 1807. After this indecisive bloodbath both sides belatedly went into winter quarters. In early June, Bennigsen mounted an offensive that was quickly parried by the French. Napoleon launched a pursuit toward
Königsberg
but the Russians successfully fended it off at the
Battle of Heilsberg
. On 14 June, Bennigsen unwisely fought the
Battle of Friedland
with a river at his back and saw his army mauled with heavy losses. Following this defeat, Alexander was forced to
sue for peace
with Napoleon at
Tilsit
on 7 July 1807, with Russia becoming Napoleon's ally. Russia lost little territory under the treaty, and Alexander made use of his alliance with Napoleon for further expansion. Napoleon created the
Duchy of Warsaw
out of former Prussian territory.
[5]
The Battle of Friedland, 1807
At the
Congress of Erfurt
(September–October 1808) Napoleon and Alexander agreed that Russia should force Sweden to join the Continental System, which led to the
Finnish War
of 1808–1809 and to the division of Sweden into two parts separated by the
Gulf of Bothnia
. The eastern part became the Russian
Grand Duchy of Finland
.
The Russo-Turkish War broke out in 1805–06 against the background of the
Napoleonic Wars
. The
Ottoman Empire
, encouraged by the Russian defeat in the
Battle of Austerlitz
, deposed the Russophile
hospodars
of its vassal states
Moldavia
(
Alexander Mourouzis
) and
Wallachia
(
Constantine Ypsilantis
). Simultaneously, their French allies occupied
Dalmatia
and threatened to penetrate the Danubian principalities at any time. In order to safeguard the Russian border against a possible French attack, a 40,000-strong Russian contingent advanced into
Moldavia
and
Wallachia
. The Sultan reacted by
blocking the Dardanelles to Russian ships
in 1807 and declared war on Russia. The war lasted until 1812.
In the
Finnish War
Alexander wrested the Grand Duchy of Finland from Sweden in 1809, and acquired
Bessarabia
from
Turkey
in 1812.
Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)
[
edit
]
The requirement of joining France's Continental Blockade against Britain was a serious disruption of Russian commerce, and in 1810 Alexander repudiated the obligation. This strategic change was followed by a substantial reform in the army undertaken by
Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly
as the Minister of War.
At the same time, Russia continued its expansion. The Congress of Vienna created the Kingdom of Poland (Russian Poland), to which Alexander granted a constitution. Thus, Alexander I became the constitutional monarch of Poland while remaining the autocratic Emperor of Russia. He was also the Grand Duke of Finland, which had been annexed from Sweden in 1809 and awarded autonomous status.
The Russo-French alliance gradually became strained. Napoleon was concerned about Russia's intentions in the strategically vital
Bosphorus
and
Dardanelles
straits. At the same time, Alexander viewed the
Duchy of Warsaw
, the French-controlled reconstituted Polish state, with suspicion. The result was the War of the Sixth Coalition from 1812 to 1814.
French invasion of Russia
[
edit
]
General
Yermolov
leading the counterattack on the Great Redoubt during the
Battle of Borodino
Main article:
French invasion of Russia
Main article:
Russian Army order of battle (1812)
In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia to compel
Alexander I
to remain in the Continental System and to remove the imminent threat of Russian invasion of Poland. The Grande Armée, 650,000 men (270,000 Frenchmen and many soldiers of allies or subject powers), crossed the
Neman
on 23 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War, while Napoleon proclaimed a Second Polish war, but against the expectations of the Poles who supplied almost 100,000 troops for the invasion force he avoided any concessions toward Poland, having in mind further negotiations with Russia. Russia maintained a scorched earth policy of retreat, broken only by the
Battle of Borodino
on 7 September, when the Russians stood and fought. This was bloody and the Russians eventually retreated, opening the road to Moscow.
Field Marshal
Mikhail Kutuzov
made the decision in order to preserve the army. By 14 September, the French captured Moscow. The Russian governor Prince Rastopchin ordered the city burnt to the ground and large parts of it were destroyed. Alexander I refused to capitulate, and with no sign of clear victory in sight, Napoleon was forced to withdraw from Moscow's ruins. So the disastrous Great Retreat began, with 370,000 casualties largely as a result of starvation and the freezing weather conditions, and 200,000 captured. Napoleon narrowly escaped total annihilation at the
Battle of Berezina
, but his army was wrecked nevertheless. By December only 20,000 fit soldiers from the main army were among those who recrossed the Neman at
Kaunas
. By this time Napoleon had abandoned his army to return to Paris and prepare a defence against the advancing Russians.
1813 Campaign in Germany
[
edit
]
Russian artillerymen in 1812–1814
As the French retreated, the Russians pursued them into Poland and Prussia, causing the Prussian Corps under
Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg
that had been formerly a part of the Grande Armée to ultimately change sides in the
Convention of Tauroggen
. This soon forced Prussia to declare war on France, and with its mobilisation, for many Prussian officers serving in the Russian Army to leave, creating a serious shortage of experienced officers in the Russian Army. After the death of Kutuzov in early 1813, command of the Russian Army passed to
Peter Wittgenstein
. The campaign was noted for the number of sieges the Russian Army conducted and a large number of
Narodnoe Opolcheniye
that continued to serve in its ranks until newly trained recruits could reach the area of combat operations.
Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov
emerged as one of the leading and talented senior commanders of the army, participating in many important battles, including the
Battle of Leipzig
.
In 1813 Russia gained territory in the
Baku
area of the
Caucasus
from
Qajar Iran
as much due to the news of Napoleon's defeat in 1812 as the fear by the Shah of a new campaign against him by the resurgent Russian Army where the 1810 campaign led by
Matvei Platov
failed. This was immediately used to raise new regiments, and to begin creating a greater foothold in the Caucasus. By the early 19th century, the empire also was firmly ensconced in Alaska reached via Cossack expeditions to Siberia, although only a rudimentary military presence was possible due to the distance from Europe.
1814 Campaign in France
[
edit
]
The campaign in France was marked by persistent advances made by the Russian-led forces towards Paris despite attempts by Alexander's allies to allow Napoleon an avenue for surrender. In a brilliant deceptive manoeuvre Alexander was able to reach, and
take Paris
with the help of the treason of Marshal Marmont before Napoleon could reinforce its garrison, effectively ending the campaign. More pragmatically, in 1814 Russia, Britain, Austria, and
Prussia
had formed the
Quadruple Alliance
. The allies created an international system to maintain the territorial status quo and prevent the resurgence of an expansionist France. This included each ally maintaining a corps of occupation in France. The Quadruple Alliance, confirmed by a number of international conferences, ensured Russia's influence in Europe, if only because of the proven capability of its army to defeat that of Napoleon and to carry the war to Paris.
The Russian Army entering Paris in 1814
After the allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander played a prominent role in the redrawing of the map of Europe at the
Congress of Vienna
in 1815. Many of the prominent Russian commanders were feted in the European capitals, including London. In the same year, under the influence of religious mysticism, Alexander initiated the creation of the
Holy Alliance
, a loose agreement pledging the rulers of the nations involved—including most of Europe—to act according to Christian principles. This emerged in part due to the influence religion had played in the army during the war of 1812, and its influence on the common soldiers and officers alike.
The Russian occupation forces in France, though not participating in the Belgian campaign, re-entered combat against the minor French forces in the East and occupied several important fortresses.
Organization
[
edit
]
Main article:
Imperial Russian Army formations and units (1914)
The Imperial Russian Army entered the Napoleonic Wars organized administratively and in the field on the same principles as it had been in the 18th century of units being assigned to campaign headquarters, and the "army" being known either for its senior commander, or the area of its operations. Administratively, the regiments were assigned to Military Inspections, the predecessors of
military districts
, and included the conscript training depots, garrisons and fortress troops and munitions
magazines
.
Fifty lashes
, 1887
The army had been thoroughly reorganised on the Prussian model by the emperor's father
Paul I
against wishes of most of its officer corps, and with his demise immediate changes followed to remove much of the Prussianness from its character. Although the army had conventional European parts within it such as the monarch's guard, the infantry and cavalry of the line and field artillery, it also included a very large contingent of semi-regular
Cossacks
that in times of rare peace served to guard the Russian Empire's southern borders, and in times of war served as fully-fledged light cavalry, providing invaluable reconnaissance service often far better than that available to other European armies due to the greater degree of initiative and freedom of movement by Cossack detachments.
[6]
The Ukrainian lands of the Empire also provided most of the
Hussar
and
Ulan
regiments for the regular
light cavalry
. Another unusual feature of the army that was seen twice during the period was the constitution of the
Narodnoe Opolcheniye
, for the first time since the coming to power of the
Romanov dynasty
.
[7]
In 1806 most of the Inspections were abolished, and replaced by divisions based on the French model although still territorially based. By 1809 there were 25 infantry divisions as permanent field formations, each organised around three infantry brigade and one artillery brigade. When
Barclay de Tolly
became the
Minister of War
in 1810, he instituted further reorganization and other changes in the army, down to company level, that saw the creation of separate
grenadier
divisions, and dedication of one brigade in each division to the jaeger
light infantry
for
skirmishing
in open order formations.
Imperial Guard
[
edit
]
Church parade of the
Finland Guard Regiment
, 1905
Emperor
Nicholas II of Russia
in the uniform of the
Chevalier Guard Regiment
, 1896
Throughout the Napoleonic Wars the
Imperial Russian Guard
was commanded by
Grand Duke Konstantin
. The guard grew from a few regiments to two infantry divisions combined into the
V Infantry Corps
commanded at Borodino by
General Lieutenant
Lavrov and two cavalry divisions with their own artillery and train by the conclusion of the 1814 campaign.
Infantry of the Guard
[
edit
]
At Austerlitz in 1805 the infantry of the Guard included: Guard Infantry Division –
General Lieutenant
Pyotr Malutin
1st Brigade –
General Major
Leonty Depreradovich-I
Preobrazhensky Lifeguard regiment
(2 btns.)
Semenovsky Lifeguard regiment
(2 btns.)
2nd Brigade –
General Major
Vasily Lobanov
Izmailovsky Lifeguard regiment
(2 btns.)
Life Guard Jäger
(1 btn.)
Life Grenadier regiment
(3 btns.)
Organization of the Imperial Russian Army, 28 June 1914
At Borodino in 1812 the infantry of the Guard included: Guard Infantry Division –
General Lieutenant
Nikolai Lavrov
1st Brigade –
General Major
Baron Roman Rosen
Preobrazhensky Lifeguard regiment
(3 btns.)
Semenovsky Lifeguard regiment
(3 btns.)
2nd Brigade — Colonel Vladimir Khrapovitsky
Izmailovsky Lifeguard regiment
(3 btns.)
Lithuanian Lifeguard regiment (3 btns.)
3rd Brigade — Colonel Baron Adam Bistrom
Finnish Lifeguard regiment (3 btns.)
Lifeguard Jäger regiment
(3 btns.)
Cavalry of the Guard
[
edit
]
Russian dragoons and hussars in 1807
At Austerlitz in 1805 the cavalry of the Guard included: Guard Cavalry Division –
General Lieutenant
Andrei Kologrivov
1st Brigade –
General Major
Ivan Yankovich
Lifeguard Hussar regiment (4 sq.)
2nd Brigade –
General Major
Nikolay Depreradovich
Horse Guard regiment (4 sq.)
Chevalier Guard Regiment
(4 sq.)
Life Guards Cossack Regiment, 1855
At Borodino in 1812 the cavalry of the Guard included: 1st Cuirassier Division –
General Major
Nikolai Borozdin
[8]
1st Brigade –
General Major
Ivan Shevich
Horse Guard Regiment (4 sq.)
Chevalier Guard Regiment
(4 sq.)
2nd Brigade –
General Major
Nikolai Borozdin
His Majesty Cuirassier Regiment (4 sq.)
Her Majesty Cuirassier Regiment (4 sq.)
Astrakhan Cuirassier Regiment (4 sq.) (non-Guard status)
As part of the I Cavalry Corps –
General Lieutenant
Fyodor Uvarov
1st Brigade –
General Major
Anton Chalikov
Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment (4 sq.)
Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment
[9]
(4 sq.)
2nd Brigade –
General Major
Orlov-Denisov
Lifeguard Hussar Regiment (4 sq.)
Artillery of the Guard
[
edit
]
At Austerlitz in 1805 the artillery of the Guard included the Lifeguard Artillery Battalion under
General Major
Ivan Kaspersky
. At Borodino in 1812 the artillery of the Guard included the Lifeguard Artillery Brigade (now a part of the Guard Infantry Division), the Lifeguard Horse Artillery under Colonel Kozen, attached to the 1st Cuirassier Division, and the Guard Sapper Battalion.
At Austerlitz in 1805 the Lifeguard Cossack regiment (five
sotnias
) was attached to the 1st Brigade of the Guard Cavalry Division. At Borodino in 1812 the Cossacks of the Guard included the Lifeguard Cossack regiment (five
sotnias
), the
Black Sea Cossack Guard sotnia
, and the Lifeguard Orel sotnia.
The
General Staff Academy
was established in 1832 in
Saint Petersburg
to train officers for the Army's General Staff.
The army saw combat against the British and French during the
Crimean War
of 1853–56.
Jews in the Russian Army
[
edit
]
On August 26, 1827,
Nicholas I of Russia
declared the "Statute on Conscription Duty".
[10]
This statute made it mandatory that all Russian males ages twelve to twenty-five were now required to serve in the Russian armed forces for 25 years.
[10]
This was the first time that the massive
Jewish population
was required to serve in the Russian military.
[11]
The reasoning for Nicolas for mandatory conscription was because “in the military they would learn not only Russian but also useful skills and crafts, and eventually they would become his loyal subjects."
[10]
Many Jewish families began to emigrate out of the Russian Empire in order to escape the conscription obligations. Due to this, the government began to employ
khapper
s who would kidnap Jewish children and turn them over to the government for conscription. Unfortunately, it became known that "the khappers were not scrupulous about adhering to the minimum age of 12 and frequently impressed children as young as 8."
[12]
"By the time the empire collapsed, around 1.5 million Jewish soldiers fulfilled what was often seen as a highly burdensome and intrusive obligation."
[11]
At first many Jews were hesitant, but by 1880 Russian Jews were fully integrated into the Russian military.
[11]
Cossacks
[
edit
]
Semirechye Cossacks
in 1867
Main article:
Cossacks
In the Russian Empire, the Cossacks were organized into several
voiskos
(
hosts
), named after the regions of their location, whether along the Russian border, or internal borders between Russian and non-Russian peoples. Each host had its own leadership and traditions as well as uniforms and ranks. However, by the late 19th century, the latter were standardized following the example of the Imperial Russian Army. Each host was required to provide a number of regiments for service in the Imperial Russian Army and for border patrol work. While most Cossacks served as cavalry, there were infantry and artillery units in several of the larger hosts. Three regiments of Cossacks formed part of the Imperial Guard, as well as the
konvoi
—the emperor's mounted escort. The Imperial Guard regiments wore tailored government-issue uniforms of a spectacular and colourful appearance. As an example, the Konvoi wore scarlet
cherkesskas
, white beshmets and red crowns on their fleece hats.
Ethnic and religious minorities
[
edit
]
Cossacks and Bashkirs attacking French troops at the
Berezina
The Cossack institution recruited and incorporated Muslim
Mishar Tatars
.
[13]
Cossack rank was awarded to Bashkirs.
[14]
Muslim Turkics and Buddhist Kalmyks served as Cossacks. The Cossack Ural, Terek, Astrakhan, and Don Cossack hosts had Kalmyks in their ranks. Mishar Muslims, Teptiar Muslims, service Tatar Muslims, and Bashkir Muslims joined the Orenburg Cossack Host.
[15]
Cossack non Muslims shared the same status with Cossack Siberian Muslims.
[16]
Muslim Cossacks in Siberia requested an Imam.
[17]
Cossacks in Siberia included Tatar Muslims like in Bashkiria.
[18]
Bashkirs
and
Kalmyks
in the Russian military fought against Napoleon's forces.
[19]
[20]
They were judged suitable for inundating opponents but not intense fighting.
[21]
They were in a non standard capacity in the military.
[22]
Arrows, bows, and melee combat weapons were wielded by the Muslim Bashkirs. Bashkir women fought among the regiments.
[23]
Denis Davidov
mentioned the arrows and bows wielded by the Bashkirs.
[24]
[25]
Napoleon's forces faced off against Kalmyks on horseback.
[26]
Napoleon faced light mounted Bashkir forces.
[27]
Mounted Kalmyks and Bashkirs numbering 100 were available to Russian commandants during the war against Napoleon.
[28]
Kalmyks and Bashkirs served in the Russian Army in France.
[29]
A nachalnik was present in every one of the 11 cantons of the Bashkir host which was created by Russia after the Pugachev Rebellion.
[30]
Bashkirs had the military statute of 1874 applied to them.